Difference between revisions of "Songli (China)"

In Chinese, ''li'' may mean ‘rite’,’ courtesy’ or ‘gift.’ The relatively modern meaning of gift comes from its ancient usage as rite and courtesy. Gift-exchange has always played a crucial role in human society, and the Chinese have since ancient times regarded the ritual of ''songli'' as indispensable etiquette. The Book of Rites, or ''Li Ji'', a Confucian classic, states for instance that ‘Courtesy demands reciprocity; courtesy is given but does not come back; it cannot be maintained. Given and not returned, there is no courtesy’ (Li Ji 2013<ref>Li Ji. 2013. The Book of Rites (Li Ji): English-Chinese Version. Create Space Independent Publishing Platform</ref>). Courtesy-visits among the upper social classes should normally be accompanied with gifts. Ancient gifts included meat, wine, jade or silk (Yang 1994: 224<ref>Yang, M. 1994. Gifts, Favours, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China. Ithaca: Cornell University Press</ref>). Since reciprocity is highlighted in the code of Confucian ethics, recipients will always give something in return to the donor of a gift in order to keep the balance and maintain the harmony of their relations.

In Chinese, ''li'' may mean ‘rite’,’ courtesy’ or ‘gift.’ The relatively modern meaning of gift comes from its ancient usage as rite and courtesy. Gift-exchange has always played a crucial role in human society, and the Chinese have since ancient times regarded the ritual of ''songli'' as indispensable etiquette. The Book of Rites, or ''Li Ji'', a Confucian classic, states for instance that ‘Courtesy demands reciprocity; courtesy is given but does not come back; it cannot be maintained. Given and not returned, there is no courtesy’ (Li Ji 2013<ref>Li Ji. 2013. The Book of Rites (Li Ji): English-Chinese Version. Create Space Independent Publishing Platform</ref>). Courtesy-visits among the upper social classes should normally be accompanied with gifts. Ancient gifts included meat, wine, jade or silk (Yang 1994: 224<ref>Yang, M. 1994. Gifts, Favours, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China. Ithaca: Cornell University Press</ref>). Since reciprocity is highlighted in the code of Confucian ethics, recipients will always give something in return to the donor of a gift in order to keep the balance and maintain the harmony of their relations.

As explained above, the use of ''songli'' in the common gift-exchange mechanism usually involves a two-way flow of gifts between two individuals regardless of their relative social status (Li 2011<ref>Li, L. 2011. ‘Guanxi, Gift and Corruption - The Enabling Role of Corruption Participants in Corrupt Exchange in China,’ Social Science Research Network Electronic Journal http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1915157</ref>). When used within the context of ''guanxi'', however, ''songli'' typically entails a one-way flow of gifts—from the weak to the strong, the subordinate to the superior, and not vice versa. Moreover, ‘repayment’ often takes the form of permissions and opportunities rather than of tangible gifts. In the ''guanxi'' context, moreover, the recipient of the gift is often someone whose right to use, allocate or redistribute certain public resources enables him or her to use official authority to grant favours and opportunities. In such cases, the boundary between ''songli'' and bribery becomes blurred.

As explained above, the use of ''songli'' in the common gift-exchange mechanism usually involves a two-way flow of gifts between two individuals regardless of their relative social status (Li 2011<ref>Li, L. 2011. ‘Guanxi, Gift and Corruption - The Enabling Role of Corruption Participants in Corrupt Exchange in China,’ Social Science Research Network Electronic Journal http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1915157</ref>). When used within the context of ''guanxi'', however, ''songli'' typically entails a one-way flow of gifts—from the weak to the strong, the subordinate to the superior, and not vice versa. Moreover, ‘repayment’ often takes the form of permissions and opportunities rather than of tangible gifts. In the ''guanxi'' context, moreover, the recipient of the gift is often someone whose right to use, allocate or redistribute certain public resources enables him or her to use official authority to grant favours and opportunities. In such cases, the boundary between ''songli'' and bribery becomes blurred.

New technologies and operational tactics have also been adopted. For instance, the social network app WeChat (''weixin'') enables users to transfer money in the form of ‘e-red packets’ to their Wechat contacts. The time-saving, easy-to-operate and hard-to-track way of giving makes e-red packet a potential new ''songli'' tool. The original function of the e-red packet was social-networking and entertaining, especially during the Chinese New Year celebrations. Nowadays however it serves more as a reliable electronic instrument for the transfer of funds. As such, it has gradually developed into a ''songli'' technique. Similarly, the rapid development of online-shopping in China offers donors more choices, while the express courier-service ensures the fast delivery of various forms of gifts. Meanwhile, the use of shopping cards and e-shopping allows recipients to choose gifts according to their preferences, making today’s ''songli'' more precise and customised.

New technologies and operational tactics have also been adopted. For instance, the social network app WeChat (''weixin'') enables users to transfer money in the form of ‘e-red packets’ to their Wechat contacts. The time-saving, easy-to-operate and hard-to-track way of giving makes e-red packet a potential new ''songli'' tool. The original function of the e-red packet was social-networking and entertaining, especially during the Chinese New Year celebrations. Nowadays however it serves more as a reliable electronic instrument for the transfer of funds. As such, it has gradually developed into a ''songli'' technique. Similarly, the rapid development of online-shopping in China offers donors more choices, while the express courier-service ensures the fast delivery of various forms of gifts. Meanwhile, the use of shopping cards and e-shopping allows recipients to choose gifts according to their preferences, making today’s ''songli'' more precise and customised.

==References and Bibliography==

==References and Bibliography==

#Ledeneva, A. 2006. How Russia Really Works. Ithaca: Cornell University Press

#Ledeneva, A. 2006. How Russia Really Works. Ithaca: Cornell University Press

#Smart, A. 1998. ‘Guanxi, Gifts and Learning from China: A Review Essay,’ Anthropos, 93(4-6): 559-65

#Smart, A. 1998. ‘Guanxi, Gifts and Learning from China: A Review Essay,’ Anthropos, 93(4-6): 559-65

#Su, C. and Littlefield, E. 2001. ‘Entering Guanxi: A Business Ethical Dilemma in Mainland China?’ Journal of Business Ethics, 33(3) 199-210

#Su, C. and Littlefield, E. 2001. ‘Entering Guanxi: A Business Ethical Dilemma in Mainland China?’ Journal of Business Ethics, 33(3) 199-210

#Yang, M. 1989. ‘The Gift Economy and State Power in China,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50(1): 118–44 at p. 25

#Yang, M. 1989. ‘The Gift Economy and State Power in China,’ Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50(1): 118–44 at p. 25

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